This hyperacute model showed interesting translational results and it is useful for the study of the local and systemic responses of lung infection and for the determination of potential measures of prevention or therapeutic modulation [114]. Clostridium spiroforme bacteria are the usual cause of enterotoxemia. o [alopecia OR hair loss ], , DVM, PhD, DACLAM, Animal Resource Center Veterinary Services. Copyright 2023 Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA and its affiliates. Another study on pneumococcal sepsis from pulmonary origin evaluating sodium bisulfide (NaHS) as inflammatory drug, registered alterations of physiological variables 4 h after the IT inoculum [82]. All animals instilled with water (n = 8) or XG-thickened water (n = 8) survived. Iizawa Y., Kitamoto N., Hiroe K., Nakao M. Streptococcus pneumoniae in the nasal cavity of mice causes lower respiratory tract infection after airway bstruction. Serotype 1 in particular carries a high risk of complications, such as empyema [19]. With the lenses of translational science this narrative review attempted to summarize relevant preclinical data on rodents, rabbits, swine, and non-human primates challenged with pneumococcal pneumonia infection. Rabbits will usually become infected with P multocida read more . Sibila O., Agusti C., Torres A., Baquero S., Gando S., Patrn J.R., Morato J.G., Goffredo D.H., Bassi N., Luna C.M. Rabbit as an animal model for experimental research. Two types of colibacillosis are seen in rabbits, depending on their age. Goldstein I., Wallet F., Nicolas-Robin A., Ferrari F., Marquette C.H., Rouby J.J. For example, a rat model was used to detect infected pleural effusion by dosing complement activation product levels in pleural fluid of animals [83]. Disease is usually mild, but growing rabbits may fail to gain weight. Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA(known as MSD outside of the US and Canada) is dedicated to using leading-edge science to save and improve lives around the world. It seems to be mildly contagious in rabbit colonies. S. pneumoniae colonizes the nasopharynx starting early in life, for which reason it is difficult to determine the pathogenesis and the moment pneumococcus becomes invasive and causes serious diseases such as pneumonia [9,10]. When infestation does occur, the rabbits are extremely itchy. Therefore, mNGS advised to be applie Hand-rearing infected young may be attempted but is difficult. The animals were euthanized on day 4, and survival and pulmonary histopathology were compared between groups. Summerfield A. Moine P., Mazoit J.X., Bdos J.P., Valle E., Azoulay-Dupuis E. Correlation between in vitro and in vivo activity of amoxicillin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in a murine pneumonia model. Lung pathology positively correlated with disease severity. WebIn a colony of rabbits the mortality rate can be very varied, usually being between 30% and 90%. Ear mite infestations are less likely to occur when rabbits are housed in wire cages than in solid cages. Conjunctivitis in rabbits is transmitted by direct contact with an infected rabbit or contaminated objects, such as bedding materials. There is an important interest in assessing whether NHP including rhesus monkeys could be suitable to assess pneumococcal components (e.g., IgA protease, capsular polysaccharide) and the relationship with pathogenesis (i.e., production of antibodies) during pneumococcal infection [129,130,131]. Different mouse strains respond variably to pneumococcal challenge in terms of disease timing, severity, and outcome. Weiser J.N., Ferreira D.M., Paton J.C. Streptococcus pneumoniae: Transmission, colonization and invasion. 8600 Rockville Pike In our opinion, research utilizing non-human primates (NHPs) for pneumococcal pneumonia is limited compared to other to other types of experimental models. Jones E.E., Alford P.L., Reingold A.L., Russell H., Keeling M.E., Broome C.V. Predisposition to invasive pneumococcal illness following parainfluenza type 3 virus infection in chimpanzees. Activity of amoxicillin-clavulanate against penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in an experimental respiratory infection model in rats. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help A veterinarian makes the diagnosis by testing for E coli. Hairballs are rarely visible on x-ray images. Influence of pulmonary bacteriology and histology on the yield of diagnostic procedures in ventilator-acquired pneumonia. The CD rat has a long history of use in toxicology research. Tularemia can cause a deadly blood infection. Mancuso P., OBrien E., Prano J., Goel D., Aronoff D.M. Affected rabbits may have difficulty walking. The link you have selected will take you to a third-party website. All rights reserved. If this happens, the rabbit loses its appetite, loses weight, and dies within 3 to 4 weeks. Janesch P., Stulik L., Rouha H., Varga C., Steinhuser J., Zerbs M., Nagy E. Age-related changes in the levels and kinetics of pulmonary cytokine and chemokine responses to Streptococcuspneumoniae in mouse pneumonia models. From there, it spread through domestic and wild rabbit populations in continental Europe. Treatment of pneumococcal postsplenectomy sepsis in the rat with human gamma-globulin. The eyelids, nose, lips, and ears become puffy, which gives a swollen appearance to the head. Pasteurella bacteria are the usual culprits, but other bacteria may cause rhinitis. Reducing stress (such as crowding) in young rabbits and feeding unlimited hay or straw help prevent the disease. These tumors may persist for several months before regressing, leaving the rabbit essentially normal. Tularemia is highly infectious and can be passed through the skin, through the respiratory tract by way of aerosols, by ingestion, and by bloodsucking insects and ticks. Diagnosis is based on findings on postmortem examination (after death), such as signs of bacterial blood infection, spots on the liver, and liver and spleen enlargement. Also, see Breeding and Reproduction of Rabbits Breeding and Reproduction of Rabbits Rabbit breeds of medium to large size are sexually mature at 4 to 4.5 months, giant breeds at 6 to 9 months, and small breeds (such as the Polish Dwarf and Dutch) at 3.5 to 4 months of age. read more . Wermert D., Marquette C.H., Copin M.C., Wallet F., Fraticelli A., Ramon P., Tonnel A.B. Keeping hutch floors clean and dry and applying an ointment recommended by your veterinarian speeds recovery. Hutch burn is often confused with a bacterial disease called treponematosis (see above). Community-acquired pneumonia. Use to remove results with certain terms These and other medical problems are discussed in this section. Careers, Unable to load your collection due to an error. Williams A.E., Jos R.J., Brown J.S., Chambers R.C. It rarely occurs in pet rabbits. Pasteurellosis can cause rhinitis (runny nose), pneumonia, abscesses (pus-filled sores), reproductive tract infections, head tilt, and blood infection. Isolation of sick animals and treatment of symptoms is advised. WebTo keep your rabbit healthy and happy throughout their life, you need to understand your rabbits needs. Rabbits groom themselves almost constantly, so their stomachs often contain hair. The discharge later becomes thicker, like pus. Your veterinarian will treat the condition with injectable or topical medication. Lung ultrasonography consistently identified pneumonia affected lobes correlated by pathological analyses. Various agents can be used to clean the sores. It may be associated with eye irritants, eyelid disorders, and dental disease. Shak J.R., Cremers A.J., Gritzfeld J.F., De Jonge M.I., Hermans P.W., Vidal J.E., Klugman K.P., Gordon S.P. The typical signs include inflammation of the reproductive tract and are usually seen in adults. Several infectious diseases and other disorders can affect more than one body system in rabbits. Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia in mice: Optimal amoxicillin dosing predicted from a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model. Shope fibromas, a type of benign tumor caused by a virus, are found in nature only in cottontails, although domestic rabbits can be infected by virus-containing material. Proliferative enteropathy caused by Lawsonia intracellularis bacteria may cause diarrhea in recently weaned rabbits. The Veterinary Manual was first published in 1955 as a service to the community. The sores generally appear first on the head and then spread to other areas of the body. Experimental Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia: Evaluation of the associated inflammatory response. Weekly dusting of animals and bedding with permethrin powder can control these mites. Treponematosis is a venereal disease of rabbits caused by Treponema bacteria. Fur mites are also common on rabbits. Yanagihara K., Izumikawa K., Higa F., Tateyama M., Tokimatsu I., Hiramatsu K., Fujita J., Kadota J., Kohno S. Efficacy of azithromycin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia, including patients with macrolide-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae infection. Guckian J.C. Role of metabolism in pathogenesis of bacteremia due to Diplococcus pneumoniae in rabbits. Coln D., Horton J., Ogden M., Williams S. Clearance of pneumococcal organisms after repair of injured spleens. In general, the oro-tracheal, the direct intratracheal, and the direct intrabronchial models offer a more precise delivery of the inoculum directly into the airways. Indoor rabbits can also be affected by pneumonia. Here are some of the microorganisms that can cause severe lung inflammation disease. Viruses causing pneumonia Common viruses include myxoma virus, coronavirus, and herpesvirus. They also make your pet to be vulnerable to bacterial caused pneumonia. Generally, there are no signs of infection. Candiani G., Abbondi M., Borgonovi M., Williams R. Experimental lobar pneumonia due to penicillin-susceptible and penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in immunocompetent and neutropenic rats: Efficacy of penicillin and teicoplanin treatment. A study evaluating the efficacy of CpG-Oligodeoxynucleotide treatment in pneumococcal pneumonia secondary to trauma used a model of third-degree burn [70]. A high mortality rate has been noted in cases caused by Pasteurella multocida, Staphylococcus aureu s or Pseudomonas. Invasive pneumococcal disease leads to activation and hyperreactivity of platelets. This can be obtained by using two main different techniques: the oro-tracheal/peroral and the tracheal puncture technique, respectively. Factors that contribute to the disease include recent dietary changes, too much or too little fiber in the diet, antibiotic treatment, environmental stress, and infection with other bacteria. For example, it was demonstrated a role of pneumolysin in decreasing complement components and reducing serum opsonic activity [81]. The animal is intubated orotracheally with a metal cannula that is advanced generally into the left main bronchus. Affected rabbits develop small blisters or slow-healing sores that become covered with a heavy scab. Bou Ghanem E.N., Clark S., Du X., Wu D., Camili A., Leong J.M., Meydani S.N. The nest box should be sanitized before and after use. Some rabbits may develop long-lasting infections that appear as a wasting disease. Rabbits should not be given penicillin by mouth because oral penicillin can cause dangerous antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Follow your veterinarians treatment program carefully because many antibiotics are not suitable for use in rabbits. In a severe pneumonia baboon model, investigators confirm that S. pneumoniae is capable of invading the myocardium and induce cardiac injury with necroptosis and apoptosis, followed by cardiac scarring after antibiotic therapy [138]. Protection against bacteremic pneumococcal infection by antibody to pneumolysin. Results. Causes of corneal ulcers include environmental factors, trauma, lack of tear production, and disorders (such as those affecting nerves) that make blinking difficult. o [ canine influenza] 1. The condition is extremely contagious and can be transmitted to humans. Similar findings were seen in rhesus macaque models that develop similar respiratory symptoms, elevation of inflammatory biomarkes and pro-inflammatory cytokines in serum and BAL [133]. Treponematosis is treated with penicillin injections. Effect of high-valency pneumococcal conjugate vaccines on invasive pneumococcal disease in children in SpIDnet countries: An observational multicentre study. Probiotic supplements may be recommended to reestablish the natural balance of microorganisms in the animals digestive system. Protection from Streptococcus pneumoniae infection by C-reactive protein and natural antibody requires complement but not Fc gamma receptors. A swine model of pneumococcal infection, used to assess pneumococcal invasive disease after S. pneumoniae serotype 8 IV administration, developed bacteremia with high pneumococcal bacterial burden within 48 h post inoculation [125]. Cohen J.M., Khandavilli S., Camberlein E., Hyams C., Baxendale H.E., Brown J.S. Impact of experimental human pneumococcal carriage on nasopharyngeal bacterial densities in healthy adults. If antibiotic treatment is started early (the first day the doe stops eating), the rabbit may be saved and damage limited to 1 or 2 mammary glands. As mentioned earlier in the Mouse and pneumococcal strains section above, Swiss mice have been largely used in literature to build the neutropenic model. McNeely T.B., Staub J.M., Rusk C.M., Blum M.J., Donnelly J.J. Antibody responses to capsular polysaccharide backbone and O-acetate side groups of Streptococcus pneumoniae type 9V in humans and rhesus macaques. Because alfalfa is high in calcium and is one of the main dietary components of rabbit pellets, switching the diet to grass or timothy hay and rolled oats may help prevent the condition from returning. Both types are caused by Eimeria protozoa. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, Sohail I., Ghosh S., Mukundan S., Zelewski S., Khan M.N. Usual routes of inoculum in rat models are IT, intrabronchial (IB), or intrapulmonary (IPu). Davis C.C., Mellencamp M.A., Preheim L.C. Many of these problems are caused by parasites, such as mites, that will require medication from your veterinarian. Reproductive disorders of rabbits include bacterial infections and metabolic disorders. Because there is no effective treatment, euthanasia is suggested. By far, the most common tumor in rabbits is uterine adenocarcinoma (malignant tumor in the uterus). Rabbits serve as the intermediate hosts for 2 species of tapeworms found in dogs. In the USA, myxomatosis is restricted largely to coastal areas of California and Oregon. This narrative review will focus on the characteristics of the different animal pneumococcal pneumonia models. For example, during the developmental period (from birth to weaning, which occurs at four months of age), one human year is equivalent to six mice days. Cho S.J., Rooney K., Choi A.M.K., Stout-Delgado H.W. Some authors expose the trachea in order to visualize the position of a needle inserted through the mouth, allowing accurate administration of the bacteria without the need to incise the airways [61]. Briles D.E., Crain M.J., Gray B.M., Forman C., Yother J. Hairballs in the stomach may also be a factor. Infection results in fever and causes liver damage, inflammation of the intestines, and damage to lymph nodes, followed by a disorder of blood clotting and bleeding within multiple organs. Effective treatments are available. Intestinal Diseases Rabbits fed a suitable diet and kept in a healthy environment can live as long as 10 to 12 years. The most common diseases of rabbits include digestive system problems, respiratory infections read more ). Kits should not be fostered to another doe because they will spread the infection. Musher D.M., Thorner A.R. The first report of the virus in the Western Hemisphere was in Mexico City in 1988. In addition, 50 mg/kg of linezolid could enhance rabbit survival to 80% (8/10) at 48 h and ultimately to 20% (2/10). Shinohara M., Kibi M., Riley I.R., Chiang N., Dalli J., Kraft B.D., Piantadosi C.A., Choi A.M., Serhan C.N. Once a blockage has occurred, the goals of treatment are to remove the obstruction, restore the digestive tracts balance, get the digestive system working properly again, and relieve dehydration and loss of appetite. Kuikka A., Syrjanen J., Renkonen O.V., Valtonen V.V. We find that in one state aloneHawaiithree years of Covid-19 mortality is equivalent to influenza and pneumonia mortality in the three years preceding the Covid-19 pandemic. Production of immunoglobulin A protease by Streptococcus pneumoniae from animals. Most antibiotics used to treat this disease in other animals have not been effective in rabbits. Providing toys and items on which to gnaw often stops this abnormal behavior. We think that rat pneumococcal sepsis models are attractive models for testing new drugs that have the potential to improve outcomes in sepsis. WebAs obligate nasal breathers, rabbits with upper airway disease will attempt to breathe through their mouths, which prevents feeding and drinking and could be quickly fatal. Treatment for hepatic coccidiosis will not be successful unless a sanitation program is started at the same time. Other data were analyzed with the Students t-test. We do not control or have responsibility for the content of any third-party site. Another group used nonsurgical transthoracic inoculation of pneumococci entrapped in cooled agar particles into the mid-right lungs [79]. Treatment involves surgically removing the stones and reducing dietary calcium. Fur mite infestations usually do not cause any signs unless the rabbit is weakened by age, illness, or stress. We found that IVIG improved survival of rabbits infected by each of the major epidemic clones of Hla- and PVL-producing community-associated MRSA, including the It is usually chosen for its calmness and easiness to handle and also has a high reproduction rate and low incidence of spontaneous tumor. A model of pneumococcal pneumonia in chronically intoxicated rats. Figure 5 Percentage of severe disease and mortality, by age strata. Laboratory tests are required to distinguish between these diseases. It can infect many animals, including humans. Development of a novel preclinical model of pneumococcal pneumonia in nonhuman primates. Influenza alone and in sequence with pneumonia due to Streptococcus pneumoniae in the squirrel monkey. The tongue is then displaced anteriorly with a retractor and the microorganism is instilled through the upper airways while the animal is inhaling [16,47,51,52,53]. It is caused by myxoma virus, a type of poxvirus. The trusted provider of veterinary information since 1955, Description and Physical Characteristics of Rabbits, Last review/revision Aug 2020 | Modified Oct 2022. Antifungal drugs are usually effective in treating ringworm. Thevaranjan N., Whelan F.J., Puchta A., Ashu E., Rossi L., Surette M.G., Bowdish D.M. The main advantages in comparison to mouse are the bigger size and therefore the amenability to perform some procedures and the possibility of using a larger bacterial burden. Changing epidemiology of antimicrobial-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States, 20042005. The most common laboratory findings include leukocytosis, or leukopenia if severe renal dysfunction, and decreased oxygenation. The inoculum size needed to cause pneumococcal infections after IT inoculation ranged from 5.7 to 6.2 log10 CFU/mL [82,83]. Wild rabbits are quite resistant and usually do not get myxomatosis. The most common diseases of rabbits include digestive system problems, respiratory infections read more ). In particular, cultures of tracheal secretions, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), protectedspecimen brushes (PSB), and direct lung aspirates were compared with cultures of lung homogenates and with histological findings [119]. Effect of bacterial pneumonia on lung simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) replication in alcohol consuming SIV-infected rhesus macaques. The earliest physical sign is a slight thickening of the tissues just below the skin, followed by development of a soft swelling with distinct edges. The Streptococcus pneumoniae has high genomic flexibility, leading to high genomic plasticity, which allows for quick spread and environment adaptation. Rabbits are rarely infested with the mange mites that cause sarcoptic mange (canine scabies) or notoedric mange (feline scabies). Prevention is the same as for any other rabbit intestinal disease. This comprehensive narrative review attempted to describe the different characteristics of the most commonly used animal models in pneumococcal science. The main focus is on molecules against resistant strains of pneumococci, especially against strains of S. pneumoniae with different resistance patterns to penicillin [107,108]. Kalin M. Pneumococcal serotypes and their clinical relevance. Protective contributions against invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia of antibody and Th17-cell responses to nasopharyngeal colonization. Another important aspect related to pneumococcal infections includes the persistent rates of penicillin and macrolide resistance that represent a challenge for patients with this condition [6,7,8]. Rabbits that recover are likely carriers. Following administration, neutrophil counts usually start to drop, reach nadir values on the day of infection and return to normal between 35 days after [34,35]. Development of experimental respiratory infections in neutropenic rats with either penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae or beta-lactamase-producing Haemophilus influenzae. The .gov means its official. Special issue on porcine immunology: An introduction from the guest editor. Guckian J.C. Coagulopathy in experimental sepsis with Streptococcus pneumoniae in rabbits: Effect of drug therapy and splenectomy. An official website of the United States government. The incubation period is 3 to 6 weeks. FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand aggravates the lung inflammatory response to Streptococcus pneumoniae infection in mice: Role of dendritic cells. The chronic ethanol intoxication model was created by a continuous ethanol administration [87]. This narrative review will focus on the characteristics of the different animal pneumococcal pneumonia models. A veterinarian can perform tests to confirm the diagnosis of Tyzzer disease. We believe that the technique that features the best balance between advantages and disadvantages is the oro-tracheal: it is fast and minimally traumatic for the animal. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal However, most of even the oldest do survive (131). Ketosis is a rare disorder that may result in death of does 1 to 2 days before giving birth. Transmission occurs via mosquitoes, fleas, biting flies, and direct contact. Major diseases caused by S. pneumoniae are otitis media, pneumonia, sepsis, and meningitis. Another model, which will not be discussed here as it is beyond the scope of this review, is the co-infection model that uses a viral infection (typically influenza virus) prior or concomitant with pneumococcal inoculation, a situation commonly encountered in clinical practice. Swine models offer a wide range of standardized methodologies due to their size compared to other small animal models [115]. Accuracy of Complement Activation Product Levels to Detect Infected Pleural Effusion in Rats. To our knowledge, limited information is available regarding swine models of pneumococcal infection. Effect of thymosin alpha one on specific antibody response and susceptibility to infection in young and aged mice. Reprod. The wound is then either closed with surgical glue or sutured [58,59,62,63]. Pneumococcal bacteraemia during a recent decade. In our opinion, the major and more important application of the rat model is the assessment of the efficacy, pharmacodynamic/pharmacokinteic of new antibiotics for susceptible or pneumococcal resistant strains (e.g., penicillin-resistant pneumococcal strains) [72,76,83,85,89,90]. The rabbit must be removed from the cage or given a solid floor (board or mat) on which to sit or rest. For aerosol anesthesia, the animals are placed in a chamber where the anesthetic (usually isofluorane, halothane, or methoxyflurane) is vaporized. Those that survive become progressively weaker and develop a rough coat. Rabbits that recover frequently become carriers. Longterm infection of the prostate is likely.
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